Two Sources of Time Dilation in Space

Time slows down in space. This is a proven fact. Measurements of time in space compared to measurements on Earth show that clocks do slow down in space.

Conventional relativity explains this by curving space and time, a concept that is hard to even imagine.

The Velcro universe on the other hand can point to two sources for the difference.

First of all, an astronaut taking with himself a clock into space has energy added to him and his clock in order to get out there in the first place. This makes him and his clock a little bigger, and slower.

Secondly, photons are affected by gravity while neutrinos are not. This is a feature of the Velcro universe. In this theory, neutrinos carry the electric/gravitational force. As carriers of a force, they cannot at the same time be affected by it.

This means that there is a higher density of photons on Earth than in space. This makes things slightly smaller on Earth than in space, even if energy was not a factor.

Clock in space is larger than clock on Earth

Time goes slower in space due to more energy and more neutrinos relative to photons. Again, we see that there is no need to bend space and time. It can just as well be explained by particles and their sizes.

Putting the Physical back into Physics

We live in a physical universe. For things to happen, things have to bump into each other, and things must physically combine in order to create structures.

This is the premise of my two short books. They are based on the idea that everything can be explained in terms of three subatomic units of matter and their interactions with each other.

In my first book, I lay out the basic physics. I describe the structures that are produced, and how forces appear through particle interaction. A whole range of physical phenomena are explained in terms of particles. These include Coulomb's law, Ampere's right hand grip rule, radio transmission, gravity, optics, magnetism, and the imbalance in size between electrons and protons.

In my second book, I go on to explain how distance and time can be explained in terms of particles and their relation to each other. Since we live in a real physical world, nothing can exist without real physical things. This is the key to understand our experience of time and distance. Everything we experience or measure is in relation to other things and their speeds. It can be no other way.

These books have since been revised and combined into two easy to read books available for free on the web.

I do not claim to have the full story on how everything works. But the list of things that can be explained in terms of particles is long. It appears that we do indeed live in a physical world where everything that we experience is due to particles interacting with other particles.

Clocks in a Spaceship

When our spaceship speeds up, it gains in size and time slows down. However, there is a much more direct thing going on when it comes to time.

As seen by an observer from behind the spacecraft, time is not only slowing down due to increase in size. It is slowing down because the spaceship becomes ever more distant. Between each tick of the clock, the spaceship is farther away. If the spaceship sends a flash of photons towards the observer every second, the flashes will be spaced out more than a second. This is true even if the spaceship did not grow.

An observer in front of the spaceship on the other hand will see the opposite. The flashes will come more frequently than every second. For every flash, the spaceship is closer to the observer, so the most recent flash will have shorter to travel than the older ones.

It is only when viewed from the side that the observer sees the time effect solely due to the spaceship increased size. Viewed from the front and the back, the spaceship's clock appears to go faster or slower respectively.

By Mettness, CC BY-SA 3.0, Link

Relativity and Light

The hardest thing to explain when it comes to relativity is the fact that light travels at a fixed speed in all directions no matter how fast we travel relative to the source.

If we are on board a space ship and we turn on the light inside the spaceship, it flows equally fast in all directions. If we let the light shine out in front of us so that an observer farther up can see it, the light does not travel at light speed + spaceship speed. It travels at light speed only. To compensate for the extra speed of the spaceship, the light is shifted to towards the blue end of the spectrum.

Conversely, light going out to the rear of the spaceship is shifted towards the red end of the spectrum.

In my blog post on a mirror moving through space I argued that the mirror would actually pick up energy from light coming from behind, and yield energy to light coming from the front. Reflected light wold be blue shifted to the front and red shifted to the back.

If we accelerate in speed towards a fixed light source, we will find the light source increasingly blue shifted. The photons coming at us blue shift as they travel through space. How can that be?

If we are growing in size as we speed up relative to the oncoming photons, shouldn't the result be a red shift? After all, the photons are smaller relative to us.

The answer may lie in the total energy of the system. The photons may be relatively smaller than us as we grow in response to an increase in energy. However, on impact with our eyes and other sensors, our instruments' energy have to be added to the energy of the photons. The photons are therefore measured and perceived to be blue-shifted.

Looking at light coming from behind, the effect is doubled. Not only are we growing larger relative to the photons, we subtract our energy from them as we register them with our eyes and instruments.

What then about light that is emitted from our spacecraft. How does it speed up on leaving the spaceship to the back, and slow down as it leaves the spaceship to the front? The observers at either end do not measure the light speed to be different. Nor does the astronaut. How can this be true all at the same time?

The answer must lie in the way the speed of light is measured. The outside observers measure the speed of light from the moment of emission until the moment of arrival. So does the astronaut.

For the astronaut, the speed of the light emitted inside the spaceship is the same whichever direction he measures it. For the observer at the back, the speed of light is measured from the source at the moment of creation. The same is true for the observer to the front.

Photons are energized instantaneously. They do not get any extra push or pull. They get the energy of the source, plus or minus the energy of the added speed relative to observers.

Local observers see no energy addition or subtraction. Outside observers see such additions and subtractions.

But what about photons that travel through the spaceship from one outside observer to another? Would not such a photons appear to travel at a different speed to a local observer inside the spaceship?

The answer is that this cannot be observed directly. The local observer has to detect the photon entering and leaving the spaceship. On entry, the time and energy is recorded. The photon is thus "consumed". An equivalent photon has to be produced. It travels to the next detector where time and energy is recorded. However, this is now a local photon. All that can be recorded regarding photons inside the spaceship must be locally produced!

When a photon of the same energy as the one detected on entry into the spaceship is produced to send onward to the other observer, it is red-shifted or blue-shifted in whatever way is required. However, this shift is canceled out completely as the outside observer registers the photon as being no different from the photon that was let straight through the spaceship without measuring.

All that may be detected at the outside is a phase shift due to the change in speed locally during the measurements. The photon that was let through without any measurements arrives at a different time than the photon that was measured, replaced, measured again, and replaced again for onward communication.

The Ginnungagap

In Norse mythology, the Ginnungagap is the gaping void of the universe.

An interesting feature of this universe is that nothing happens before North and South come into existence. Everything that happens and everything that will ever happen takes place in the field between North and South.

To me, this sounds like a description of an electric universe.

By ESA/Hubble, CC BY 4.0, Link

Cold Periods and Mass Extinctions

From comparing the time periods of relatively recent extinction events with climate records, a pattern emerges.

The extinction of the Elephant Bird happened during the Maunder Minimum, often referred to as the little ice age. The extinction of the Moa and the Haast Eagle correspond to the cold period that wiped out the Viking settlements on Greenland and Newfound Land.

The remaining Mammoths and Irish Elk disappeared during the grand interglacial cold period 4000 to 5000 years ago, and the end of the last glacial period saw the disappearance of a large number of large animals, such as the Saber Tooth Tiger, the Giant Sloth and the Large Woolly Mammoths.

What these periods have in common, apart from being cold, is that Earth was subject to more cosmic radiation.

Now that we are entering a new period of low solar activity and therefore increased cosmic radiation, large animals may again be at risk. Will we soon see the demise of the African Elephant and the Andean Condor?

Solar cycle prediction

By David Hathaway, NASA, Marshall Space Flight Center - http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/predict.shtml, Public Domain, Link

The Elephant Bird

The Elephant Bird lived in large numbers on Madagascar until as recently as the 18th century. It was more than 3 meter tall and weighed up to 500 kg.

Just like the Moa in New Zealand, it's extinction is a mystery. However, it is generally assumed that it was hunted to extinction by humans.

Primitive Mega-Structures

While it is difficult to precisely date the exact age of buildings, it is relatively easy date the relative age of buildings that have been built in stages.

What is striking about ancient buildings is that the older layers are generally built with larger blocks of rock than more recent parts. This is particularly interesting when it applies to basic structures such as the foundation of buildings.

The base of a building is not a part that is meant to impress. There is no point in not being practical about the size and material used. Why then were the ancients more interested in using huge blocks of rock than more recent people? Why did the Egyptians build with enormous blocks of rock where the Greek and the Romans later chose to build with smaller blocks?

Some believe that the ancients had access to some fantastic technology that allowed them to build with very large blocks of stone. However, there is nothing in the art of the ancients to suggest that they were highly advanced. The Greeks and Romans were much more refined in their artwork.

Nevertheless, there is one aspect of ancient building techniques that indicate a significant difference in technology. Despite the crudity and primitive nature of their tools, ancients appear to have been able to carve rock with ease. They might even have been able to pour granite as if it was concrete.

The ease with which the ancients cut rock, and the size of the blocks they chose to build with, suggest that something has changed in our environment. Not only does it seem like gravity has changed. The chemistry of rocks appear to have changed. How else could they mold and cut rock with such ease, when all they had at their disposal were primitive bronze tools?

The Irish Elk and the Woolly Mammoth

The Irish Elk, which went extinct some 5000 years ago stood 2.1 meters tall at its shoulders. It carried huge antlers, some 3.6 meter wide.

Until recently, it was widely believed that the Irish Elk went extinct at the end of the last ice age, some 10000 years ago, but recent findings suggest otherwise.

The same is true for the Woolly Mammoth. It was believed to have gone extinct at the end of the ice age. However, it too survived well after that. Current estimates set the final extinction to have happened some 4500 years ago.

Quite interestingly, the Woolly Mammoths that survived beyond the last ice age were considerably smaller than they once were. 10000 years ago, the Woolly Mammoths stood more than 3 meters tall at their shoulders. When they finally went extinct, they were no larger than today's African Elephant, measuring a little over 2 meters at their shoulders.

Also, there is no sign of malnutrition or starvation in either the Irish Elk or the Woolly Mammoth, yet they went extinct over a relatively short time-span. The extinction event some 10000 years ago appears to have been particularly swift and brutal.

Saber-toothed cats, mastodons, giant sloths, woolly rhinos, and many other big, shaggy mammals are widely thought to have died out around the end of the last ice age. Just as living conditions improved, a large number of giant animals disappeared.

Surely, humans cannot have caused all these extinctions, and if malnutrition wasn't the cause of it either, what could it have been?

The Moa and the Haast Eagle

The Moa was a large flightless bird that existed on New Zealand up until the 1400s. It was 3.6 meters tall and weighed 230 kg.

In comparison the common ostrich is 2.8 meters tall and weighs a maximum of about 150 kg.

The Haast eagle which went extinct together with the Moa, preyed on the Moa. The Haast eagle weighed upwards of 14 kg. That is a great deal less than its prey. However, with fangs like daggers and a powerful beak, it was nevertheless able to mortally wound its prey.

With a full 230 kg of food, a single kill must have been able to feed several Haast eagles for days on end. The kill rate could have been low. Weak and vulnerable Moas may have been the Haast eagles' main targets.

The Moa and the Haast eagle must have been a perfect little eco-system.

The extinction of the two birds around the time that man first set foot on New Zealand has been attributed to man hunting down the Moa to extinction.

However, there is nevertheless something strange about the size of the two birds. The Moa was a lot larger than the biggest living land bird, and the Haast eagle was a lot bigger than the biggest living eagles of today. Steller's sea eagle with a maximum weight of about 9 kg is dwarfed by the Haast eagle in much the same way the common ostrich is dwarfed by the Moa.

While it is perfectly reasonable to assume that man put an end to the two birds by hunting the Moa to extinction, a question remains unanswered. Why are there no similarly big birds anywhere on our planet today?

By John Megahan - Ancient DNA Tells Story of Giant Eagle Evolution. PLoS Biol 3(1): e20. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030020.g001, CC BY 2.5, Link

Four Particles

To make everything add up in the Velcro universe, I had to declare the neutron a composite particle. Otherwise, it would have had close to no size, and by extension very little or no inertia (mass).

This means that the Velcro universe only knows four particles. They are:

1. The neutrino - composed of one neutral quantum
2. The photon - composed of three negative and three positive quanta
3. The electron - composed of one positive and two negative quanta
4. The proton - composed of 1088 negative and 1089 positive quanta

Everything beyond this are composite particles, made up of protons, electrons and neutrinos:

1. The neutron consisting of one proton, one electron and one neutrino
2. Atomic nuclei consist of one or more protons glued together with electrons and neutrinos

Of the four fundamental particles, the neutrino and photon have no inertia and move at a fixed speed. The electron and proton have inertia and move at a variable speed.

This is the total extent of the Velcro universe at the subatomic level. There are three quanta that produce four fundamental particles, two with inertia and two without inertia. Everything else is derived from this.

Gravity

The Velcro universe has gravity as a special case of the electric force. This means that we can apply the same kind of logic to orbits of moons and planets as we have applied to molecular bindings.

If the solar system was to receive an abundance of neutrinos, everything in it would grow, including the width of orbits.

To see any changes due to an increase in neutrinos, we would have to look beyond our solar system. Things farther afield would appear to grow smaller and more frantic, while everything remains unchanged locally.

This means that any measurable change in local gravity or orbits have to be due to something else than a change in neutrino density. A change in neutrino density cannot explain the fact that our moon is receding from us, or the fact that dinosaurs were as large as they were.

To explain the receding moon and size of dinosaurs, we will have to resort to mechanisms such as mass accumulation, mass condensation and capacitance.

Mass accumulation is the mechanism in which regular inertial matter falls onto our planet. All measures indicate that there is way too little of this going on to explain any significant change in gravity over time.

Mass condensation is the mechanism in which high energy photons get absorbed by atomic nuclei, making the nuclei grow over time. This would make our planet change more during periods of much radiation than periods of less radiation.

Mass condensation through absorption of photons

From experience, we know that geological activity increases during periods of high radiation, indicating that mass condensation may be taking place.

Capacitance is the ability of a body to hold charge. If our planet is growing, as many believe it is, then Earth's capacitance is increasing. With more charge carried by our planet, gravity will increase.

Expanding Earth seen from the South Pole

Unlike regular electric force, gravity is not dependent on a net charge imbalance. Gravity is only dependent on the total number of charged neutrinos, and the extent of their charge.

With an increase in matter through mass condensation, gravity increases due to an increased number of neutrinos picking up charge from the larger nuclei.

With an increase in charge, gravity increases due to an increased degree of charge on each neutrino.

The increase in gravity that appears to have taken place since the time of the dinosaurs is therefore likely to be due to a combination of mass condensation and increase in capacitance.

Our moon may be receding from us due to an increase in mass as well as an increase in static charge on the surface of our planet. The increases in mass and static charge end up sending our moon into a wider orbit despite the corresponding increase in gravity.

Gravitational pull and electrostatic push

Speed and Energy

In the Velcro universe, energy is stored as size. This means that an increase in energy has the exact same effect as an increase in number of neutrinos. Everything grows, and time slows down.

If we put our astronaut into a spaceship with a limitless supply of fuel, he and his spaceship will increase in size as they accelerate through space.

A consequence of the increase in size is that further increase in speed becomes more difficult. Inertia increases in proportion to the energy and overall size of the system. It takes more time to make the energy transfer from fuel to spaceship. Seen from outside, we note that it takes ever more time to increase the speed of the spacecraft.

However, the astronaut on board the spacecraft notices no change in acceleration. His clock is slowing down in proportion to the slowing down in acceleration. Measured locally, with a local ruler and clock, the acceleration is always proportional to the fuel spent.

Forces and the Speed of Light

Forces cause things to accelerate. This means that there is a relationship between inertial matter, space, time and force.

The experience of this is constant for our astronaut, no matter how we manipulate the electric or magnetic force by adding or subtracting photons and neutrinos. Space and time changes in such a way that the astronaut is oblivious to any local change.

If we increase the number of neutrinos, things grow. As a consequence, time slows down.

Since energy is stored as size, the astronaut becomes more massive.

From the equation F = ma, we see that F remains the same because mass and distance increase in proportion to time. Mass, distance and time are all increasing linearly with the increase in neutrinos. Mass multiplied by distance and divided by the square of time is therefore constant.

If we increase the number of photons, things become smaller. Again we see a proportional change between mass, distance and time. Again, we have a constant.

The local observer sees no change in force, no matter what the changes are in the availability of photons and neutrinos.

Another thing the local observer sees no change in is the speed of light.

It follows then that there must be a constant relationship between the speed of light and the electric and magnetic force.

As it happens, that is exactly how things are: The speed of light = 1/sqrt(magnetic permeability*electric permitivity)

In the Velcro universe, magnetic permeability is a measure of availability of photons and electric permitivity is a measure of in-availability of neutrinos. The relationship between the speed of light and these two measures are therefore no mystery at all.

Photon traversing an electron

Space and Time

Returning to our astronaut in space, we now have an explanation for why he has slowed down in all his actions due to the addition of neutrinos to his environment.

Every bit of inertial matter grew in size, so the time it takes for a photon to cross the void inside an electron has increased. The astronaut's time quantum has grown longer in direct proportion to the change in size.

Bigger electrons yield slower time

A consequence of this is that the speed of light is unchanged for the astronaut. His ruler is longer, but so is his time quantum.

Compared to the outside observers, the astronaut has slowed down. However, the astronaut is as oblivious to any change in time as he is to any change in distance. To him, everything remains constant.

Having played around with neutrinos, we continue our experiments with the astronaut by adding zero-point photons to his space. We do this by drenching everything including the box with a liberal supply of photons.

What happens now is that the photons reduce the density of neutrinos. The photons compete with the neutrinos for space. They cannot both occupy the same space, so the neutrinos have to leave as we turn up the supply of photons.

The electric force weakens as a consequence. Since photons are unaffected by charge, they do not behave the same way as neutrinos in the charged environment inside electrons and atomic nuclei.

Neutrinos tend to stay inside places where walls are equally charged. Neutrinos produce over-pressure inside electrons and atomic nuclei. This is how they communicate the electric force. Photons don't do this. They have no preference for being inside or outside atomic nuclei.

The loss of electric force is therefore not compensated by the addition of photons. Things become smaller, and time speeds up.

Smaller electrons yield faster time

The astronaut cannot detect any change in the electric force, because it's tied up to the size of things. Likewise, there is no way for the astronaut to detect any change in the magnetic force.

With more photons and fewer neutrinos, the outside observers notice that magnets in the astronaut's possession become more efficient. They smack together faster when they attract and they move apart faster when they repel.

However, this too is only noticeable from the outside. The astronaut's time is speeding up in proportion to the increase in magnetic efficiency. The only difference that is not subject to the observers' frame of reference is the supply of neutrinos and photons. Everything else remains constant for the astronaut, while it changes as seen from the outside.

Time and Clocks

Time is tied up to things in much the same way that space is tied up to things.

Time is also tied up to motion. Things have to move in order for time to become a meaningful concept.

An empty void cannot be measured, neither in distance nor time.

For distance to exist, the void needs to be populated by things. For time to exist, things have to move.

Imagine entering a void in which everything has stopped moving, including our own biological mechanism. How are we to know when an hour has lapsed? The answer is that it cannot be known. Time without motion of any kind is as meaningless as distance without things.

This means that time is a quality derived from distance and motion. We tend to think of motion as something that is derived from distance and time, but it is actually the other way around.

To understand this, we have to keep in mind  that matter comes in two fundamentally different forms. It is either inertial, in which case it has variable speed, or it is non-inertial, in which case it has a fixed speed.

Time is the relationship between inertial matter and non-inertial matter. Inertial matter defines distance, and non-inertial matter defines speed. These are fundamental units, and the fundamental relationship between inertial and non-inertial matter is:

time = distance/speed

To make a clock, we need two components. One component must be an accurate unit of distance, the other component must be an accurate unit of motion. The resulting time unit is the "distance" between the tick marking the start of the time unit, and the subsequent tick marking the end of the time unit.

The smallest possible time unit is therefore related to the smallest distance of inertial matter. This unit is the distance across the hollow of an electron. Anything smaller is either in direct contact with something else, allowing nothing to move between, or in motion and therefore useless as a ruler.

We require two walls and something moving between them in order to record time. Using the smallest possible distance combined with the fastest possible particle, we end up with the smallest possible unit of time. This we can call the time quantum. It is the time it takes for a photon or neutrino to cross the void inside an electron.

Photon traversing an electron

If anything happens faster than it takes for a photon to cross the void inside the electron, it cannot be recorded as having taken any time. Such changes are what we regard as instantaneous, and since any change to the state of a photon or neutrino happens quicker than it takes a photon to cross the inside of an electron, all changes to non-inertial matter is instantaneous.

This is not merely a matter of perception. It is a matter of physical reality and has therefore physical implications.

For instance, since inertia is the time it takes for something to change its energy, photons and neutrinos have no inertia. It takes less than a time quantum to produce a change to such a particle.

On the other hand, electrons and atomic nuclei have inertia because it takes more than a time quantum to perform a change in energy. All the quanta making up such matter have to be informed of their change in size. This information is carried by photons that have to move in three dimensions. It cannot be done faster than it takes a photon to cross the void of en electron in one dimension.

Space and Distance

Cosmic space can be thought of as an unending void, populated by things. Wherever we look, we see things, and they are separated by space.

To measure space, we use a ruler. The ruler is a thing, and there's no way around this. Without things, the concept of distance becomes meaningless, not only in psychological terms, but in real physical terms as well.

How big is a void with nothing in it? It is impossible to say without some kind of reference.

If the void is inside a box, we measure the box, and we have an answer. However, what we have measured is the box, not the void. An empty void with no box containing it cannot be measured.

Let us therefore keep the box and make it big enough for an astronaut to float around inside it.

We use a carefully crafted ruler to measure the distance from the walls of the box to the astronaut inside of it, and we note down the numbers.

The astronaut does the same, and we compare his numbers with ours. We get the same result.

However, let us now pour some extra neutrinos into the space occupied by the astronaut. We do this liberally, so that the box around the enclosed space is just as drenched as the astronaut. What happens?

In the Velcro universe, the electric force is dependent on how many neutrinos are available, so we are changing the electric force when we add neutrinos. The electric force becomes stronger.

Since all the things inside the box are made of inertial matter, everything starts swelling up. The nucleus of every atom swells up, the electrons bouncing off the nucleus bounce higher. The molecular and metallic bindings move apart.

Looking at the box from outside, we can see that both the box and the astronaut is growing in size. However, the astronaut is completely oblivious to any change. To him, nothing has changed. Using his bloated ruler, everything is exactly as before.

The only change that the astronaut and the outside observers can agree on is the density of neutrinos inside the space with the astronaut. It has increased. The total number of neutrinos inside the box is the exact same number for any observer.

However, everything else is relative to the observer's frame of reference. This includes the observers time and clocks. The astronaut is slowing down in his actions in proportion to his increase in size. The reason for this becomes clear once we realize what time actually is.

The Existence of Things

In the Velcro universe, the existence of things boils down to an excess of energy.

The only way energy can be stored in such a universe is through size. With more energy than can be stored in photons and neutrinos alone, there is a need for larger structures, and the larger structures come in the form of inertial matter.

Inertial matter in turn comes in two fundamental forms. Inertial matter is either an electron or a proton. Protons in turn can combine with electrons and neutrinos to produce larger structures still. In this way we get a large array of atoms, all with their own size. These are the chemicals of the periodic table.

An excess of energy, combined with the impossibility of energy existing anywhere outside matter, results in the universe as we know it.

The Velcro Cosmos

Having presented a theory of physics based on the idea that everything can be explained by three types of particles that act inside a framework of time, space and energy, it is now possible to come to some conclusions about the nature of all these factors, and how they relate to each other.

In this book we will be more precise in our definitions of things, and we will see that it is in fact impossible to describe anything in absolute terms. Everything we experience and everything we measure is relative to something else.

However, before we rush into an explanation about the relationships between things, let us first start by being a little more precise about things. Let us start with the basic premise of the Velcro model.

In the Velcro model we have three types of particles that we call quanta. They are either negative, in which case they are covered with hoops, or they are positive, in which case they are covered with hooks, or they are neutral, in which case they are a mix of hooks and hoops.

The positive and negative quanta are so reactive that they do not exist freely in nature. The simplest negative particle found in nature is the electron which consists of two negative quanta and one positive quantum. That gives the electron a net charge of minus one.

The electron is a bloated structure. It is much larger than its three constituent quanta, and the way we explain this in is that the electron and all other particles with inertia are hollow.

Since the Velcro model equates energy of particles with their size, bloated structures carry a lot of energy.

The smallest neutral particle that exists in nature is the neutrino. It is the neutral quantum described above. It is a mix of hoops and hooks. However, the neutrino is not always completely neutral. If it hits a hook covered surface, its hoops are drawn out, making it slightly negative. If it hits a hoop covered surface, its hooks are drawn out, making it slightly positive.

Neutrinos that find their way into the hollow inside of an electron thus become slightly positively charged. This produces a tiny bit of pressure inside the electron, which in turn explains the electron's bloated nature.

Protons are bloated mega-structures. Relative to electrons, they are giants. However, protons are identical to electrons in the way they are put together. They are hollow, and they have charged neutrinos inside of them, producing pressure.

The neutron is not a single mega-structure, but the sum of a proton and an electron, tied together by a neutrino. This explains why the neutron retains its pressure and size, despite being neutrally charged on average. It also explains why free neutrons decay within minutes. Neutrons are not atomic. They fall apart when not in a stable association with a proton.

An atomic nucleus is an assembly of one or more protons, glued together by electrons and neutrinos.

All normal matter that we see around us are made up of atoms which consists of an atomic nucleus together with electrons that bounce up and down on the nucleus, neither gaining nor loosing energy as they find themselves trapped by the electric force.

In addition to the neutrino and the various kinds of normal matter, there is the photon. It is an assembly of six quanta, three positive and three negative.

Unlike normal matter, it is not bloated. It is not hollow, but solid and elastic. There are no neutrinos inside photons, but because they are elastic, they can expand somewhat. This makes the photon a better energy vessel than the neutrino. However, it is nowhere near as good at storing energy as inertial matter.

What the photon does well, is the communication of energy. Since it moves at the speed of light, it can move energy from one place to another in an instance.

The neutrino and the photon travel at the speed of light. They travel neither faster nor slower than this. However, since the neutrino is smaller than the photon, it zips past obstacles, such as other photons, in a slightly more direct path than the photon. The neutrino will therefore always arrive quicker at a destination than a photon, provided the space between the point of departure and point of arrival is filled with zero-point particles assumed to exist in the Velcro model.

From this, we will see that concepts like time and space can be explained. Also, the very existence of things in the universe can be explained by this model.

Two Photons Traveling in Parallel

An interesting consequence of the Velcro model is that two photons traveling in parallel through space will eventually meet.

The reason for this is that photons in the Velcro model are made up of dielectric matter, just like inertial matter. There is therefore a gravitational force between the two photons. Given enough time, the two photons will meet.

Dielectric photon made up of six charge quanta

Tick Tack

Distance is tied up to the electrical force, and time is related to distance as follows:

Time = Distance/Speed of light

This means that time is intimately tied up to distance in such a way that if distance was to change due to a change in the electric force, time would change with it.

In order to measure time, distance is required, and distance is only meaningful between two points fixed in their relative position to each other.

We cannot use the distance between two photons as a yardstick, because that distance varies. We have to use inertial matter.

The smallest unit of time is in other words tied up to the smallest unit of distance inside inertial matter. It is the time it takes for a photon to travel from one of Morton Spears' quanta to another.

If something happens quicker than this, it is instantaneous. Not because it happened infinitely fast, but because it happened so fast that it cannot be measured.

To measure time, something has to move from a to b. At a, the clock goes tick. At b, the clock goes tack. For a clock that measures the smallest possible unit of time, anything that happens between the tick and the tack has no time associated with it.

A photon bouncing between two walls, separated by the smallest possible unit of distance, does not spend any measurable time at either wall. The only measurable time is the crossing of the tiny void between the two walls. If it makes a tick at one wall and a tack on the other wall, the time spent in between is impossible to subdivide further.

This is why photons change energy instantaneously.

The change in size of a photon happens over a distance that is smaller then the distance from one quantum to another quantum in an atomic nucleus.

An atomic nucleus on the other hand has inertia because the change in size takes place over a distance that does cover time. If an atomic nucleus consists of N quanta, there is N - 1 number of time units involved. If they are serially informed of their change in energy, we get that the inertia of an object is directly proportional to the number of quanta it consists of.

Photon crossing an electron

To Double in Size

I woke up this morning wondering how fast I had to move in order to double my rest mass.

The reason for my wondering was the fact that the Velcro model associates energy with size. If I double in energy, I double in size.

In fact, if I double in energy my volume goes up by eight times. I'll double in all three dimensions.

Of course, someone has already figured out the answer to my question. To double my energy, I'll have to move at 87 percent of the speed of light.

That's why we don't see the average car speeding up the road as any bigger than a stationary car. Inertial mass is such an efficient energy storage structure that any additional energy added to it is imperceptible in terms of size before speeds are way beyond what we consider normal.

To achieve one percent in size increase, we have to move at two percent of the speed of light. That's about 6,000 kilometers per second.

How it all Hangs Together

So it appears that the Velcro model can explain relativity as well as quantum physics.

Everything can be arrived at in terms of Morton Spears' quanta and the speed of light.

1. Energy exists inside matter as size.
2. Inertia is the resistance to change in energy.
3. The speed limit for inertial matter is the speed of light.
4. Non-inertial matter always move at the speed of light.
5. The size of inertial structures are determined by the electric force.
6. The electric force is communicated by neutrinos.
7. Energy is communicated by photons.
8. Time is distance divided by the speed of light.

From this if follows that when matter increases in size due to change in energy or change in the electric force, time slows down correspondingly so that the speed of light always remains constant.

This means that an inertial system will increasingly resist additional change to its energy as it speeds up. At the speed of light, the energy of inertial matter goes to infinity and time goes to zero.

Mirror Moving Through Space

When it comes to a spaceship moving through space, I suggested in an earlier post that the torrent of blue-shifted photons coming from the front of the spaceship would slow it down if its engine was turned off.

On further reflection, it is clear to me that this is not the case. Random photons coming from outside of the local reference frame does not affect the speed of the spacecraft.

The reason for this becomes clear when we consider what would happen if we moved a two sided mirror through space in such a way that it reflects photons coming from the front and back.

At rest, such a mirror will reflect photons perfectly from both sides. Nothing happens to the photons as they hit the mirror. They change their direction. That's all.

However, as the mirror speeds up, the photons hitting the mirror from the front receive energy from the mirror. Returning back into space, the photons are blue-shifted.

From this alone, it is tempting to conclude that the mirror must slow down. However, the photons coming from the back will compensate by yielding energy to the mirror.

This is because the photons coming from the back hit the mirror in such a way that they would have slowed down if they were made of ordinary matter. But photons cannot slow down. They must therefore red-shift in order to keep their speed.

A mirror moving through space shifts energy from photons hitting it from behind over to photons hitting it from the front. In the process, there is no net gain or loss of energy for the mirror. It neither slows down nor speeds up. It continues unaffected.

Energy as Size

In the Velcro model of physics, energy is stored as size. This means that the addition of energy to a system will have the same effect as adding neutrinos to it. Viewed from outside, the ticks of the local clock slows down.

A spaceship being accelerated ever faster through space will never reach the speed of light relative to the outside reference frame because the local clock grinds to a halt. Its inertia goes to infinity.

Locally, nothing out of the ordinary can be detected. The slowing down of the clock correspond with a swelling up of matter. Acceleration is unchanged too. Calculated with a local clock and yardstick, acceleration remains constant.

However, when looking out into space from the spaceship, things look smaller and more frantic. Distances are shorter. The time to cross the void is reduced. Traveling at close to the speed of light, the astronauts arrive quickly at their destination.

Astronaut

By NASA - http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ABSTRACTS/GPN-2000-001156.html, Public Domain, Link

Acceleration in a Relative Universe

Note: The reasoning in this blog post is flawed.

A better way to view acceleration and blue shift is explained in Energy as Size and Mirror Moving Through Space.

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Energy was of no help when it came to understanding the way neutrinos and photons relate to space and time. However, when it comes to acceleration, energy is the way to go.

Let us consider a spaceship accelerating through space. The inhabitants of the spaceship are unaware of anything unusual going on inside the ship. But when they look out of the spaceship they notice something interesting.

Light coming from objects to the front of the spaceship blue-shifts. Light coming from behind red-shifts.

This means that there is more energy in the photons coming from the front of the space ship than the light coming from behind.

If the spaceship is externally powered by a source that can be considered stationary relative to the reference frame, the photons reaching the spaceship from this source, placed behind the spaceship, will become increasingly red-shifted. At the same time, random low energy photons hitting the spaceship from the front will become increasingly energetic.

The energy transferred to the spaceship from behind starts tending towards zero while the energy of even the most innocent of photons hitting the spaceship from the front becomes super-energetic.

It is therefore impossible to accelerate a spaceship all the way up to the speed of light.

There is no way around this. Rocket fuel provided by the spaceship itself will not be much more effective. As soon as it is dumped out at the back and ignited, the fuel source is traveling slower than the spaceship. It may still be traveling very close to the same speed as the spaceship, but its effectiveness will diminish as the spaceship accelerates.

Furthermore, the torrent of energetic photons from the front will be such that if the spaceship was to stop pouring out rocket fuel to its back, the spaceship would in fact be slowed down.

The tendency of any reference frame is to make everything inside of it stand still relative to everything else.

This is not noticeable at modest speeds, but as is the case with the spaceship, anything moving contrary to the reference frame will have energetic blue-shifted photons hitting it from the front and red-shifted weakling photons hitting it from behind. Given enough time, photons will slow down any object moving contrary to the general reference frame.

Complete rest of an object is obtained when the energy of photons hitting it is equal on all sides.

Adding Photons to the System

Having finally found a straight forward explanation for the relationship between neutrinos and space, it's time to return to the photon.

Taking lessons from what I concluded about the neutrino, I see that my earlier attempts at explaining how time is influenced by the presence of photons has some rather glaring flaws in them.

First of all, any change in the density of photons in a region should have the same kind of undetectable effect that changes in neutrinos have. This is the essence of relativity. Local changes to the number of photons or neutrinos have no local effect. It is only when the local space is compared to another space that the difference can be observed.

Also, understanding energy is not the key to understanding time. Energy is related to size, and work is related to time, so the whole work and energy side of things are tied up to time and space. But that is not the best approach to understand time.

A source of confusion when it comes to photons and time is that photons are more plentiful in a repelling magnetic field than an attracting magnetic field. The temptation is therefore to conclude that things grow larger in a repelling magnetic field, just like they grow larger in a repelling electric field.

However, photons do not convey the electric force. Things do not grow larger when photons are added. Rather, the opposite must be happening.

Adding photons to a system comes at the expense of neutrinos. For every photon added to a space, a couple of neutrinos will have to leave. With no electric field to keep the neutrinos inside a repelling magnetic field, neutrinos get expelled. Things get smaller, and time speeds up, as seen from the outside.

Inside a repelling magnetic field, we have the exact same situation as inside an attracting electric field, and visa versa. Increase the number of photons in a region of space and things inside the region will shrink, making the ticks of the clocks more frequent. Decrease the number of photons in the same region, and things will swell up, making the ticks of the clocks less frequent.

In light of this, we can make the general assertion that space and time are related to the density of neutrinos and photons, in such a way that the speed of light remains a constant, no matter what changes are made to the density of these particles.

The Importance of Neutrinos

With neutrinos responsible for communicating the electric force, everything from the subatomic to the astronomical expands if neutrino density increases It's not just the sub-atomic and molecular that expands when there are more neutrinos available. However, none of this is detectable by a local observer. He too expands, and his clocks, biological, mechanical or nuclear, all slow down. Any detectable change in orbits, gravity, inertia, etc, is not due to a change in the number of neutrinos, but a change in some other parameter. A change in the number of neutrinos has no local effect whatsoever.

Even the electric constant for permittivity will remain unchanged. This is because time and distance is used to determine this constant. The only possible ways to detect a difference is for the local observer to either look out of his reference frame, in which case he will see thing around him having changed size and speed, or he has to count the number of neutrinos in a given volume of space, in which case he will discover a difference.

The casual observer, discovering a local change in number of neutrinos may very well conclude that neutrinos have no physical function. After all, the observer cannot see anything locally to suggest something is going on. However, once the observer looks out of his reference space he may realize the connection between what is happening and the density of neutrinos measured.

If the number of neutrinos in a given volume of space has increased, things around the observer will have become smaller and more frantic. If there is a detectable decrease in local neutrinos, things around the observer will look bigger and more sluggish.

The effect of an increase or decrease in neutrinos can only be detected when measured relative to another space. The easiest way to do this is to set up an electric field. This will increase or decrease the number of neutrinos in the affected region by either trapping them or expelling them, depending on the force produced being attracting or repelling. Experiments can then be made by observers staying well away from the electric field.

Looking into the affected space, the outside observer will detect an increase in size and a corresponding slowing down of time if the electric field is repelling, and the opposite effect if the electric field is attracting.

Neutrinos communicating the electric force

Thinking in Relative Terms

Having messed about with a few ideas concerning time and space, I think I finally had a bit of a breakthrough in the post on how to measure distance.

When neutrinos are added to a system, things swell up. At the same time, the clicks of the clock slow down.

For the local observer, himself swelling up and slowing down, nothing noticeable happens. Everything stays the same. Even the speed of light, measured with the swelled-up ruler is the same, because the slowed down clock lets photons run the entire stretch of the ruler with the exact same number of clicks as before.

The key to understanding this is to think in terms of local reference frames. There is the outside observer, with his clock and ruler, and there is the local observer with another clock and ruler.

Also, the way we think of time has to be correct.

Time is the clicks of the clock, and nothing else. There is no absolute time.

The way we can construct a clock is by putting a photon inside a confined space, such as an atomic nucleus. Every time the photon hits a wall, there is a click.

Photon traversing an electron

When the nucleus swells up due to more neutrinos pushing the walls apart, the distance between the clicks becomes larger in exact proportion to the increase in distance between the walls.

This is in essence why the speed of light remains the same regardless of reference frame.

When things swell up, the clicks of the clock become more stretched out too. If it took hundred clicks of the local clock for a photon to travel down the length of a local ruler before everything swelled up, it still takes a hundred clicks of the local clock for the same photon to travel down the same ruler after it swelled up.

Electron swelling to produce slower clock

How to Measure Distance

In the absence of neutrinos everything shrinks, and ordinary matter and photons melt together into a single block of matter that resonate in harmony.

To an outside observer, the space lacking in neutrino becomes a single particle moving at the speed of light. The speed of light inside the space appears to have stopped.

Conversely, if a space is subjected to a strong repelling electric force so that there becomes an over-abundance of neutrinos in that space, things become bigger. The outside observer will see things grow.

To a local observer, everything look the same because the observer grows too. The observer's clock changes a little due to the increased space. It ticks a little slower, because the photons inside have farther to travel from one point to another. However, this slowing down is only observed from the outside. No such change can be detected locally.

There is no way for the local observer to detect that the ruler has grown, because the observer has grown too, and the clocks, both biological and mechanical have slowed down correspondingly.

Measuring the speed of light, the local observer sees no change in anything.

Also, if an outside observer uses the local clock and yardstick to calculate the speed of light, there is no change. The increase in length of the yardstick is compensated for by the slowing down of the clock.

Using the outside clock and yardstick, the outside observer registers a change in the local time and distance. However, when applied to the speed of light inside the local space, the outside yardstick and clock end up with the exact same speed of light as measured using the local yardstick and clock.

When it comes to the relationship between distance and time, it does not matter whether the measuring equipment is local or external. The distance traveled by light during one click of a clock is always the same, provided both the clock and the yardstick are in the same frame of reference.

This is why the speed of light is a constant, no matter which reference frame we use.

The practical consequence of this is that we can always measure distance by the use of a laser and a clock.

How to Measure Time

When Michael Faraday observed that photons get polarized in the presence of a magnetic field, he concluded that this was but one effect of magnetism. What he did not realize, was that he was in fact observing magnetism itself. Polarized light is magnetism. Polarized light is not merely a consequence of magnetism.

The same argument can be made about time. Most people would argue that an atomic clock measures time. Very few would say that the clicks of an atomic clock is time. However, it may well be that most people are wrong about time in the same way that Faraday was wrong about magnetism.

It may well be that the clicks of an atomic clock is in fact time. In fact, if very carefully constructed, any precise measurement of time is time. A spring clock, precisely crafted, is not merely measuring time, the ticks of such a clock is time.

Just like magnetism is the coordinated spin of photons, time is photons doing work on inertial matter.

Any device that accurately portrays work done on inertial matter is a representative for the concept of time.

Increase the number of photons inside such a device, and time will speed up. Reduce the number of photons, and time will slow down.

Put a bunch of rats inside a strong attracting magnetic field, and see them live longer than a test group of rats outside of the field (provided the field itself does not kill the rats, of course).

Make the field repelling, and the rats inside the field live shorter.

Put our finely crafted spring clock inside the magnetic field, and note that the rats inside the field live equally long as the ones outside the field when measured with the local clock.

There is no time outside the clock. Biologic, mechanic or radioactive, it makes no difference. Time is photons doing work inside the clock, just like magnetism is polarized photons.

Consequently, there is no such thing as absolute time. Time is always measured by a clock. When we say that time speeds up, it is relative to an outside clock. It is not relative to an imaginary absolute clock.

Note that a consequence of increasing the number of photons in a space is that neutrinos are expelled. The increased speed of a clock's ticks correspond therefore to a reduction in space. Measuring the speed of light by using  a local clock and yardstick would therefore result in no change.

Photon traversing an electron

Photons in the Absence of Neutrinos

While it is fairly easy to picture what happens in a space with no photons, it is considerably more difficult to imagine what happens in a space with no neutrinos.

Neutrinos are associated with space. When they are removed from a space, everything becomes smaller, including the space itself.

However, if we leave the photons inside, the space does not completely disappear. The photons occupy space, so they will prevent the space from collapsing completely.

But there will be no space between the photons. The photons will start to vibrate wildly inside the crammed space. Presumably, they will start to oscillate in harmony with each other.

Any ordinary matter trapped inside the space will oscillate in harmony with the photons.

The space becomes a rigid block of ordinary matter and photons oscillating in harmony with each other.

Relative to a local ruler inside the space, the photons no longer move. The local speed of light inside a space with no neutrinos is zero.

Energy

So it appears that time is a quantity intimately tied to the photon, and the reason for this is that the photon is a carrier of energy, and therefore able to perform work.

Without anything happening, time stops. An observer watching a space void of photons will note that nothing happens. An observer inside a space virtually void of photons will note that everything around him or her happens at an accelerated pace.

The photon is tied up to time through its ability to carry energy.

The neutrino on the other hand, carries no energy, or so little of it that it can be ignored.

How then, is it possible for the neutrino to be associated with the electric and gravitational force?

The answer to this lies in the fact that some changes do not require any change in energy, and gravity is a prime example of this.

Let us consider a rock held in the hand of a person.

The person can throw the rock up in the air by giving it some of his or her energy.

The energy to send the rock up comes from the person. It is communicated via photons.

Then the rock moves upwards. But gravity pulls it down to Earth again.

It appears that gravity is performing work. However, no work is done. Energy is simply changing its form from kinetic to potential, and then back to kinetic as the rock comes back to Earth.

As far as the rock is concerned, no energy is added or subtracted during its flight. It was only at the start of its journey that energy was added to it, and it is only at the end that energy is lost as the rock hits Earth, sending photons in all directions.

Something to the same effect is happening inside electric fields. There is no energy in the field itself. If there is any energy given to any object affected by the field, it is given to these objects by external contributors.

Neutrinos do not communicate energy. Only photons do this. However, there is a lot of action that can take place without any energy being applied. The trick is to identify the cases in which energy is required and the cases where it's not. If energy is required, photons have to be present in order to communicate it.

This means that a rock will fall to the ground, even if there is no time. An observer dropping a rock into a room void of photons will see the rock falling while at the same time observing that time has stopped.

It will appear as if the rock is moving at an infinite local speed. However, all that is happening is that the clock, which requires energy to work has stopped, while the rock, which requires no energy to accelerate continues to fall.

Also, a lone photon traveling through the same space will appear to move infinitely fast.

The conclusion to this line of reasoning can be found in the chapter on Kinetics of my latest book.

Ball falling due to gravity