Particles

The Velcro universe has four stable atomic particles, each made up of particle quanta that are either positive (hook covered), negative (hoop covered), or neutral (mix of hooks and hoops).

The atomic particles are:

• Neutrino = 1 neutral quantum
• Photon = 3 negative quanta + 3 positive quanta
• Electron = 1 positive quantum + 2 negative quanta
• Proton = 1089 positive quanta + 1088 negative quanta

All other particles are either composite arrangements in which two or more of these particles are joined to form an entity, or transient subdivisions that will immediately recombine to produce one of the stable particles mentioned above.

The Neutron is a composite particle consisting of 1 proton, 1 electron and 1 neutrino.

The positron is a transient subdivision consisting of 1 negative quantum and 2 positive quanta.

The positron will always combine with an electron to either form a photon or merge into a proton.

The predominant tendency is for positrons to merge with protons, but the process can go the other way too. Protons can eject a positron-electron pair and thereby generate a photon. However, the normal process is that photons split into a positron-electron pairs which are in turn absorbed by a proton.

The proton has for this reason a natural tendency to grow in size. Its present size is enormous compared to other particles, but will inevitably grow larger over time.

A single proton can capture a single electron and trap it in its electric field. Such a configuration is what we generally refer to as a hydrogen atom. Hydrogen atoms will readily combine with other hydrogen atoms to form hydrogen molecules (H2).

The reason for this is that molecules are more efficient in the way they store energy than single atoms. Stable molecules hold less energy in total than their constituent parts do on their own.

The more efficient the arrangement, the more readily the individual atoms will join to form it. Two water molecules, each consisting of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms (H2O) are more energy efficient than two hydrogen molecules (H2) and a single oxygen molecule (O2). This is why oxygen and hydrogen readily combine to produce water.

The energy released in chemical reactions is radiated away by a transfer of energy from the atoms to nearby photons.

The net charge of an atomic nucleus determines the number of electrons that it can capture, and hence its chemical property. If an atom has fewer or more electrons than its positively charged nuclei would normally allow, it is referred to as an ion.

Ions are charged atoms. They require an electrical field in order to be maintained. Under electrically neutral conditions, atoms are neutral.

A hydrogen nucleus has a net positive charge of 1 and must therefore capture 1 electron in order to be electrically neutral.

A helium nucleus is a combination of 4 protons and 2 electrons. That gives the helium nucleus a net positive charge of 2. It must therefore capture 2 electrons to become neutral.

An oxygen nucleus consists of 16 protons and 8 electrons. It has a net charge of 8, and must therefore capture 8 electrons in its electric field to become electrically neutral.

Isotopes are atomic nuclei with a deviating number of neutrons. As stated above, neutrons are electron-proton pairs. This means that any number of these can be added to or removed from an atomic nucleus without affecting its chemical property. However, isotopes tend to be radioactive. They are therefore relatively rare.

Exotic sub-atomic particles such as Bosons, Leptons and Quarks are transient particles produced by smashing up protons. They are misinterpreted as being somehow important in physics. However, no practical application of this misguided physics has ever been realized, and all its findings are highly speculative.

The Velcro model does not support Bosons, Leptons or Quarks. What is seen in laboratory experiments are merely the scattered debris of smashed up protons which quickly recombine to produce some new combination of photons, electrons and protons.